The Know

The Book of Mormon authors frequently wrote descriptions of warfare, mentioning various kinds of protective clothing: armor, animal skins, thick clothing, breastplates, head-plates, shields, arm-shields, and bucklers.1 Because these words sometimes call up for modern readers images of medieval European armor made of metal, some have regarded Book of Mormon armor as an anachronism.2 However, when the Book of Mormon is situated within an ancient American context, the descriptions throughout the book are actually quite plausible and convincing.3 Knowing the types of armor used in the ancient Near East and Americas can also help elucidate the Book of Mormon narrative.

Much of the difficulty may lie with the assumptions of English-speaking readers. The English words describing armor its subcategories have received their current meanings throughout European history and thus often carry connotations that are not necessarily inherent in the original terms used by Mormon. Readers may subconsciously imagine the Nephites in Roman or medieval European metal armor, though the text certainly doesn’t demand it. Looking at the biblical and ancient American systems of armor, however, reveals more appropriate analogs for evaluating what Book of Mormon armor may have been.

Near Eastern Armor and Shields

The Old Testament has several Hebrew words that may have influenced the Book of Mormon usage of armor words, referred to in the King James Version (KJV) as “armor,” “breastplate[s],” “shields,” and “bucklers,” and various kinds of clothing.4 The Old Testament does not describe head-plates like the Book of Mormon and instead uses “helmets.”5 Like Book of Mormon armor, Old Testament armor consisted of head protection, chest protection, and a shield, apparently leaving the legs uncovered.6

Because findings of armor in ancient Israel and Judah are so rare, armor technologies are extrapolated from the neighboring nations, particularly from Assyrian reliefs and armor fragments.7 Biblical helmets, breastplates, and shields could include metal but did not have to, especially because it was expensive and weighed down a warrior. Philip J. King and Lawrence E. Stager wrote, “The Israelite helmet ... was fashioned of metal or leather, modeled no doubt on the Assyrian helmet appearing in the Lachish reliefs.”8

Biblical breastplates or coats of mail, better described as scale armor, “consisted of a leather jacket covered with small [metal] scales.”9 However, as Yigael Yadin notes, “its manufacture demanded high technical skills and was very costly”; thus, “the simplest solution was a uniform made of leather or some tough fiber. This would not give perfect protection, but it could give some, was simple to manufacture, and was light to wear.”10 Though this does not qualify as a breastplate per se, it demonstrates that chest armor was not always made of metal.

Shields came in a variety of sizes, from full-body shields to handheld shields.11 Yadin summarized, “Most early shields were of wood, leather, plaited twigs or reeds, or of metal. ... [Some] shields, as a compromise between strength and lightness, were made of wood or leather and stiffened with metal plates and studs.”12

Ancient American Armor and Shields

Some readers may be confused by references to armor in the Book of Mormon because of an assumption that all armor was metal and because ancient American metallurgy lagged behind Eurasian metallurgy.13 However, because biblical armor was not always made of metal, we need not assume that all or even most armor used by the Nephites would have been made out of metal, especially if metallurgy occurred on a limited basis.14 William J. Hamblin asserted, “Once in the New World, the Nephites would be forced to adapt their armor industries to the local resources, technology level, and military system. … This is precisely what we find.”15

This is especially evident when Book of Mormon armor is considered in greater detail. Other than the few metal Jaredite breastplates, which were probably noted because they were exceptional, no other Book of Mormon armor was explicitly metal. Furthermore, these Jaredite breastplates may have only been ornamentally plated with metal.16 This is not unlike what we find in American archeology.

Some ancient American cultures, including the Mesoamerican Olmecs but particularly peoples in South America, did wear ceremonial metal pectorals that covered some of the chest and could be considered breastplates.17 One early Spanish account noted that the Indigenous peoples had wooden armor plated with decorative metal.18 Such regalia would have been very rare and costly items reserved for elites. However, it was likely that most ancient American armor consisted of thick clothing supplemented with pieces, or plates, of wood or bone fastened to vulnerable areas.19 This technology likely existed in the Book of Mormon world, as depictions of various forms of armor on Mesoamerican figurines date to Book of Mormon times.20

Another challenge for identifying ancient armor is that there is often significant overlap between items for ceremonial and practical use. Whereas the Old Testament distinguishes between ceremonial and practical breastplates and headgear, the line between these is much blurrier in New World archaeology and may have been blurry to its ancient inhabitants as well.21 Concerning a golden breastplate from pre-Columbian South America, one scholar noted, “This embossed breastplate … may have been expressly for burial; however, if worn in life, sewn to a cotton tunic or shirt, it would have provided some protective coverage as armor.”22

Like biblical armor, the nonmetal armor in ancient America is difficult to study due to its perishable nature, though iconography and written sources help elucidate their appearance and function. The primary armor in most ancient American conflicts, if any was used, was probably protective clothing made of cotton.23 The Lamanites are described as initially only fighting with a loincloth or girdle, but they later adopted the Nephite practice of wearing thick clothing in battle.24 This was probably similar to the Aztec quilted cotton armor, ichcauipilli, whose thickness was sufficient to protect from all but direct blows and had the added advantage of being lightweight. Even if metal armor were easy to produce, its impracticality in hot subtropical regions with dense vegetation would discourage extensive use. Many Spaniards that had access to metal armor opted for the lightweight Aztec cotton armor.25

Mesoamerican warriors also wore headgear into battle that could appropriately be called headplates or helmets.26 It typically consisted of a base of wood or bone that was highly decorated and made to resemble animals. This nonmetal headgear could be broken by an enemy weapon, consistent with Book of Mormon headplates that were “split.”27 Like other armor, this headgear was not necessarily universally used or afforded, though Nephites sometimes seemed to be more uniformly equipped.28

Pre-Columbian America also provides examples of “all manner of shields” mentioned in the Book of Mormon.29 Large rectangular shields were used to cover the whole body but lowered mobility. Other smaller shields, usually circular, could have qualified as the arm-shields and bucklers mentioned in the text. These shields were made from wood, reeds, leather, cotton, and shells and could be ornamentally decorated with precious metals, stones, and feathers.

The Why

Knowing this background on ancient American armor helps vivify our understanding of Book of Mormon narratives and is consistent with the reality of the Book of Mormon. The one mention of metal armor in the book can be easily explained as ornamental; most armor and shields could have been made of nonmetal materials like New World armor and some Near Eastern armor. Book of Mormon mentions of uncovered legs, headplates that can be split, and thick clothing as armor are all consistent with a New World setting and bolster the book’s credibility. More importantly, however, the stories involving armor in the Book of Mormon can also teach powerful spiritual lessons.

The Lamanite Zerahemnah thought it was the Nephites’ armor and not their God that saved them; perhaps the armor had a role, but Moroni asserted instead that it was faith in Christ that brought victory (Alma 44:3, 9). Still today, it is tempting to “trust in the arm of flesh” even though “the battle is the Lord’s” (2 Nephi 4:34; 1 Samuel 17:47). However, the Book of Mormon also makes it clear that available resources should be used before asking the Lord. Moroni asked, “Behold, could ye suppose that ye could sit upon your thrones, and because of the exceeding goodness of God ye could do nothing and he would deliver you? Behold, if ye have supposed this ye have supposed in vain” (Alma 60:11).

With that in mind, readers ought to follow Lehi’s admonition to “put on the armor of righteousness.”30 Though preparation for the calamities of the future may sound mournful and pessimistic, it brings a sense of purpose and confidence that can be extremely joyful, as Moroni and the Nephites exemplified:

And now it came to pass that Moroni did not stop making preparations for war, or to defend his people against the Lamanites. ... [His] armies ... did increase daily because of the assurance of protection which his works did bring forth unto them. ... But behold there never was a happier time among the people of Nephi, since the days of Nephi, than in the days of Moroni. (Alma 50:1, 12, 23)

• 1. Alma 43:19, 21, 28; 49:6; 3 Nephi 3:26. William J. Hamblin, “Armor in the Book of Mormon,” in Warfare in the Book of Mormon, ed. Stephen D. Ricks and William J. Hamblin (Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies [FARMS]; Salt Lake City, UT: Deseret Book, 1990), 404, says, “There are eight distinct terms for armor mentioned in the Book of Mormon: Breastplate (11 times), shields (10 times), armor (9 times), head-plates (7 times), arm-shields (2 times), animal skins (2 times), thick clothing (2 times), and bucklers (1 time).”
• 2. Matthew Roper, “Anachronisms: Accidental Evidence in Book of Mormon Criticisms, Part 2: Ancient Warfare,” (forthcoming).
• 3. Hamblin, “Armor in the Book of Mormon,” 400–424; Roper, “Anachronisms: Accidental Evidence in Book of Mormon Criticisms, Part 2: Ancient Warfare,” 
• 4. There are several Hebrew words translated as “armor” in the KJV that can alternately mean vessels (1 Samuel 14:1), military equipment (Isaiah 22:8), a robe (1 Samuel 17:38), a loincloth (2 Kings 3:21), a thing scavenged from a corpse (2 Samuel 2:21), or a completeness of covering (Ezekiel 38:4). In one instance, it is a mistranslation (1 Kings 22:38). Ludwig Koehler, Walter Baumgartner, and Johann J. Stamm, The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament [HALOT], trans. and ed. Mervyn E. J. Richardson, 2 vols (Boston, MA: Brill, 2001), s.vv. “כְּלִי,” “נֶשֶׁק,” “מַד,” “חֲלִיצָה,” “מִכְלוֹל,” “חֲגוֹרָה,” “זֹנָה.” For bucklers, shields, and breastplates, see HALOT, s.vv. “מָגֵן,” “צִנָּה,” “שִׁרְיוֹן.” Hamblin, “Armor in the Book of Mormon,” 417–419.
• 5. The distinction between the two may be negligible but may also be noteworthy. Hamblin, “Armor in the Book of Mormon,” 418, reads, “Maya head armor could, of course, be called a helmet, as is done by most archaeologists. On the other hand, the structural differences between a Near Eastern helmet, which was a single piece of metal formed to rest on the head, and the Maya headgear, which consisted of many small plates mounted on cloth or wood, should be enough to justify the difference in terminology.” See HALOT, s.vv. “כּוֹבַ֫ע,” “קוֹבַע.”
• 6. Hamblin suggests that Israelites did wear leg protection, but the biblical mention of greaves is unique to the Philistine giant Goliath and is more reminiscent of Greek styles than Near Eastern styles (1 Samuel 17:6). Ancient Mesoamerican artwork also shows the legs bare but with occasional anklets. Hamblin, “Armor in the Book of Mormon,” 418; Alan Millard, “The Armor of Goliath,” in Exploring the Longue Duree: Essays in Honor of Lawrence E. Stager, ed. J. David Schloen (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2009), 338.
• 7. Philip J. King and Lawrence E. Stager, Life in Biblical Israel (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2001), 229, wrote, “The Judahites and the Assyrians are variously attired in the Lachish Reliefs; there is no rigid consistency. In some cases, the two sides are outfitted similarly and also use the same kind of weapons.”
• 8. King and Stager, Life in Biblical Israel, 230.
• 9. King and Stager, Life in Biblical Israel, 230. Hebrew shiryon is translated once as “breastplate” in the KJV (Isaiah 59:17), but alternately as “coat of mail” (1 Samuel 17:5), “habergeons” (Nehemiah 4:16), and part of a harness” (2 Chronicles 18:33). HALOT, s.vv. “שִׁרְיוֹן,” “סִרְיוֹן.”
• 10. Yigael Yadin, The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands in the Light of Archaeological Study, 2 vols (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1963), 1:15
• 11. King and Stager, Life in Biblical Israel, 230. The Hebrew tsinah is the larger shield, and magen the smaller. The KJV also includes a term, ʿagilot, that should be translated “shields” (Psalms 46:10) and a term, soherah, that is translated as “buckler” but probably should not be (Psalm 91:4). HALOT, s.vv. “צִנָּה,” “מָגֵן,” “עֲגִילָה,” “סֹחֵרָה.”
• 12. Yadin, Art of Warfare, 1:15.
• 13. Though the earliest evidence so far of Mesoamerican metallurgy dates to about 600 AD, South American metallurgy dates back to before 2000 BC. Jaredite and Nephite metallurgy could have occurred in Mesoamerica by drawing on Near Eastern or South American traditions, though on a limited enough basis to elude archaeological detection. For a metallurgical timeline of the Americas, see Joanne Pillsbury, Timothy Potts, and Kim N. Richter, eds., Golden Kingdoms: Luxury Arts in the Ancient Americas (Los Angeles, CA: Getty Research Institute, 2017), xiv. The same principle is true of metal swords in the Book of Mormon. See Scripture Central, “What Kinds of Swords Did Book of Mormon Peoples Have? (Alma 24:17),” KnoWhy 740 (July 9, 2024).
• 14. Laban’s armor was probably high quality, judging by his fine sword, and may have consisted of a metal helmet and scale armor. 1 Nephi 4:9, 19. However, it is likely that Nephite armor practices were adapted to the New World cultures, as Hamblin discusses elsewhere.
• 15. Hamblin, “Armor in the Book of Mormon,” 416.
• 16. Mosiah 8:10. For a discussion on Book of Mormon metallurgy and weaponry, see Hamblin, “Armor in the Book of Mormon,” 405–407; Jerry D. Grover Jr., The Swords of Shule: Jaredite Land Northward Chronology, Geography, and Culture in Mesoamerica (Provo, UT: Challex Scientific Publishing, 2018), 267–281; John L. Sorenson, Mormon’s Codex (Provo, UT: Neal A. Maxwell Institute; Salt Lake City, UT: Deseret Book, 2013), 331–344; Matthew Roper, “Anachronisms: Accidental Evidence in Book of Mormon Criticisms, Part 3: Metals,” (forthcoming); Scripture Central, “What Kinds of Swords Did Book of Mormon Peoples Have?”
• 17. The Olmecs used iron and pyrite to make decorative mirrors worn on the chest. Grover, Swords of Shule, 276–277, 279. For a few South American examples of ornamental metal breastplates, see Pillsbury, Potts, and Richter, Golden Kingdoms, 168, 180–181. Hamblin and others suggest that this may have been what the copper and brass breastplates of the Jaredites were. Hamblin, “Armor in the Book of Mormon,” 405–407; Scripture Central, “Mesoamerican Armor.”
• 18. Diego Duran, History of the Indies of New Spain, trans. Doris Heyden (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994), 205–206; Scripture Central, “Mesoamerican Armor.”
• 19. Hamblin, “Armor in the Book of Mormon,” 414.
• 20. Scripture Central, “Mesoamerican Armor.”
• 21. The Old Testament has a unique word for a ceremonial breastplate or breast-piece, a ceremonial girdle, and several unique words describing the ceremonial cap of the high priest, which consisted of some kind of turban with ornamental metal strapped on. HALOT, s.vv. “חֹשֶׁן,” “אַבְנֵט,” “מִצְנֶ֫פֶת,” “פְּאֵר,” “מִגְבָּעָה,” “צִיץ.” Without textual support, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether New World weapons and armor were purely ceremonial or were actually used in war.
• 22. Pillsbury, Potts, and Richter, Golden Kingdoms, 168.
• 23. Sorenson, Mormon’s Codex, 348, 418–419; Scripture Central, “Did Book of Mormon Peoples Wear Silk and Linen? (Alma 1:29),” KnoWhy 734 (June 3, 2024).
• 24. Alma 43:19; 49:6. The Book of Mormon mentions skin girdles, leathern girdles, and armor girded about the loins. Though some kind of loincloth was likely worn on a daily basis for regular utility, it is plausible that some kind of additional protection, perhaps an additional layer of clothing, was used. For the biblical equivalent, see HALOT, s.vv. “חֲגוֹרָה,” “אֵזוֹר.”
• 25. A. Brent Merrill, “Nephite Captains and Armies,” in Ricks and Hamblin, Warfare in the Book of Mormon, 274; Sorenson, Mormon’s Codex, 348.
• 26. Scripture Central, “Headplates.”
• 27. Note, however, that South America exhibits examples of ornamental gold helmets and headdresses, some of which date to Book of Mormon times. Pillsbury, Potts, and Richter, Golden Kingdoms, 180–181, 189–190.
• 28. Moroni's military innovations could have been less about discovering novel ways to protect the body and more about providing protection for all soldiers; see Scripture Central, “Headplates.”
• 29. Scripture Central, “Shields.”
• 30. 2 Nephi 1:23; Scripture Central, “What Does the Book of Mormon Say about the Armor of God? (2 Nephi 1:23),” KnoWhy 378 (November 2, 2017).