KnoWhy #337 | August 20, 2020

What Counts as Chiasmus?

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Scripture Central

“For the things which some men esteem to be of great worth ... others set at naught.” 1 Nephi 19:7

Editor’s Note: This year marks 50 years since the discovery of chiasmus in the Book of Mormon on August 16, 1967. To celebrate this 50th anniversary, throughout July and August Book of Mormon Central will publish one KnoWhy each week that discusses chiasmus and its significance and value to understanding the Bible, the Book of Mormon, and other ancient literatures. Be sure to check out our other KnoWhys on chiasmus and the Chiasmus Resources website for more information.

The Know

Since 1969, when John W. Welch published the first study of chiasmus in the Book of Mormon,1 hundreds of additional Book of Mormon chiasms have been proposed.2 Furthermore, the discussion in Mormon circles has extended beyond the Book of Mormon to the Bible, Doctrine and Covenants, the Pearl of Great Price, Joseph Smith’s personal writings, Dr. Seuss, dull computer manuals, and even General Authority Facebook posts.

In the last fifty years, academics in many fields around the world have found, or proposed to find, chiasms in ancient Ugaritic, Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, Latin, and Mesoamerican writings, as well as in Medieval, Renaissance, Arabian, Hindu, and Modern literatures, including Shakespeare, Montaigne, and beyond.3

Some Latter-day Saints and others as well have overzealously engaged in chiasmania—seeing chiasmus everywhere in inspired writings.4 Critics, meanwhile, have sought to prove chiasmus is merely a chance occurrence in the Book of Mormon and anywhere else by proposing its presence in the unlikeliest of places.5 The unconstrained hunt for chiasms on all sides attests to the need for reliable criteria for sifting deliberate chiastic patterns designed by authors from happenstance patterns invented by imaginative readers.

Chiasmus can be found in many texts from the ancient Near East, the Bible, and Book of Mormon, and even modern literature. Image of the Flood Tablet of the epic of Gilgamesh. Image via Ancient History Encyclopedia.

Chiasmus can be found in many texts from the ancient Near East, the Bible, and Book of Mormon, and even modern literature. Image of the Flood Tablet of the epic of Gilgamesh. Image via Ancient History Encyclopedia.

This problem is not new, and not uniquely Mormon.6 Starting as early as 1942, scholars have proposed criteria for identifying chiastic structures. The main efforts at establishing criteria for identifying the presence of chiasmus in any text have now been brought together for easy comparison on the Chiasmus Resources website.7

Based on the several lists of criteria conveniently compared there, the most widely agreed upon standards are: (1) chiasms should conform to natural literary boundaries; (2) a climax or turning point should be found at the center; (3) these inverted patterns should display a relatively well-balanced symmetry; (4) their structure should be based on major keywords; (5) they should manifest little, if any, extraneous repetition or divergent materials; and (6) the chiastic order should typically not compete with other strong literary forms in the same passage. 

Over twenty years ago, John W. Welch published an essay advancing 15 criteria for evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of proposed chiasms (see chart below).8 Welch explained, “A burden of persuasion rests on any person describing a passage as chiastic.” The persuasiveness of any proposal, Welch added, “can be judged most securely on the basis of specific criteria.”9 In the intervening years since his original 1969 publication, Welch has become well-known as an authority on chiasmus, and his criteria have been taken seriously by scholars using chiasmus to evaluate ancient and other writings.10

The use of these criteria “assist[s] in appraising and appreciating the noteworthy characteristics” of a passage and “can assist in establishing a presumption of intent.”11 Nonetheless, evaluation of chiastic passages—like any other type of literary criticism—necessarily remains an interpretive exercise. Hence, rather than advancing absolute, final judgments, those proposing chiastic features in a text should best recognize that all “chiastic passages manifest varying degrees of chiasticity,” with expressly stated criteria being the “basis on which the degree of chiasticity in a given passage may be assessed.”12

Some mathematicians and computer scientists have very helpfully sought to reduce or assess the role of reader subjectivity by using statistical methods to evaluate chiastic patterns.13 These methods are able to determine that some proposed chiastic patterns were very likely created deliberately, but they cannot prove if others which statistically could have happened by chance, did happen by chance.14 As such, statistical probabilities are best used together with additional criteria to evaluate the merits of any proposed chiasm.15

The Why

The presence of complex chiasms in any text can be very meaningful, interesting, and probative in many ways and for a host of reasons.16 Chiasmus can provide powerful evidence that a text is complicated, organized, meaningful, and beautiful. Before one can decide what chiasmus in any text proves, however, one must first decide what counts as a chiasm. As John W. Welch concluded, “Many proposed chiasms are impressive and interesting; others appear to be contrived or unremarkable.”17

Mosiah 3 chiasmus by Book of Mormon Central

Mosiah 3 chiasmus by Book of Mormon Central

In the case of the Book of Mormon, chiasmus can add impressive evidence that its underlying texts manifest subtle features that are consistent with ancient writings—but only when the proposed chiasms are identified through judicious and principled textual analysis. Fortunately, many proposed Book of Mormon chiasms measure up well against even the strictest sets of criteria, and for this reason chiasmus in the Book of Mormon has been intriguing and useful to many of its readers and interpreters.

Welch and others have amply demonstrated the presence of a number of legitimate chiasms in the Book of Mormon.18 Furthermore, the statistical analysis of Edwards and Edwards demonstrated that the chiasms in Alma 36, Mosiah 3:18–19, Mosiah 5:10–12, and Helaman 9:6–11 were very likely created deliberately, and thus “support the hypothesis that chiasmus appeared by design in the Book of Mormon.”19

The Edwardses analysis provides “very strong evidence that the authors of these chiasms knew about the chiastic form and applied it deliberately in composing them.”20 More recently, Dennis Newton has applied the same statistical technique to 15 chiasms in 1 and 2 Nephi, finding “there is strong likelihood that nine of these were composed intentionally and that it is probable that another three were intentional.”21

Meanwhile, none of the proposed chiasms from Joseph Smith’s personal writings, the Doctrine and Covenants, Dr. Seuss, or computer manuals measure up well to either the more interpretive criteria or statistical analysis.22

Ultimately, the presence and value of chiasmus in the Book of Mormon has to be judged on a case-by-case basis and will always remain somewhat in the eye of the beholder. Inevitably, “the things which some men esteem to be of great worth ... others set at naught” (1 Nephi 19:7). In forthcoming KnoWhys, some of the very best chiasms in the Book of Mormon will be discussed and appreciated.23 You are invited to utilize the criteria discussed here to reach your own conclusions about the value that these chiasms add to your own study and application of the writings and teachings in the Book of Mormon.

Chart of Chiasmus Criteria

15 Criteria for Identifying and Evaluating the Presence of Chiasmus

1. Objectivity: To what degree is the proposed pattern clearly evident?

2. Purpose: Is there an identifiable literary reason to employ chiasmus?

3. Boundaries: Does the chiasmus conform to the literary units of the text?

4. Competition with Other Forms: Are there other literary patterns present?

5. Length: How many keyword pairs are part of the pattern?

6. Density: How many words between the key terms in the pattern?

7. Dominance: Are the key terms the dominant terms in the passage?

8. Mavericks: Are the key terms repeated outside the pattern?

9. Reduplication: Is there frequent, extraneous repetition within the passage?

10. Centrality: Is the center the key turning point of the passage?

11. Balance: How evenly does the passage split from the central element?

12. Climax: Is the central element the focal climax of the passage?

13. Return: Do beginning and end combine to provide a sense of return?

14. Compatibility: Is it compatible with the author’s overall style?

15. Aesthetics: There should be a certain beauty and artistic quality

Further Reading
Footnotes
Ancient Near East
Chiasmus
Evidences
Methodology
Book of Mormon

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